GNU C Language Manual

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GNU C Manual

This manual explains the C language for use with the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) on the GNU/Linux system and other systems. We refer to this dialect as GNU C. If you already know C, you can use this as a reference manual.

If you understand basic concepts of programming but know nothing about C, you can read this manual sequentially from the beginning to learn the C language.

If you are a beginner to programming, we recommend you first learn a language with automatic garbage collection and no explicit pointers, rather than starting with C. Good choices include Lisp, Scheme, Python and Java. C’s explicit pointers mean that programmers must be careful to avoid certain kinds of errors.

C is a venerable language; it was first used in 1973. The GNU C Compiler, which was subsequently extended into the GNU Compiler Collection, was first released in 1987. Other important languages were designed based on C: once you know C, it gives you a useful base for learning C++, C#, Java, Scala, D, Go, and more.

The special advantage of C is that it is fairly simple while allowing close access to the computer’s hardware, which previously required writing in assembler language to describe the individual machine instructions. Some have called C a “high-level assembler language” because of its explicit pointers and lack of automatic management of storage. As one wag put it, “C combines the power of assembler language with the convenience of assembler language.” However, C is far more portable, and much easier to read and write, than assembler language.

This manual focuses on the GNU C language supported by the GNU Compiler Collection, version ???. When a construct may be absent or work differently in other C compilers, we say so. When it is not part of ISO standard C, we say it is a “GNU C extension,” because it is useful to know that; however, other dialects and standards are not the focus of this manual. We keep those notes short, unless it is vital to say more. For the same reason, we hardly mention C++ or other languages that the GNU Compiler Collection supports.

Some aspects of the meaning of C programs depend on the target platform: which computer, and which operating system, the compiled code will run on. Where this is the case, we say so.

The C language provides no built-in facilities for performing such common operations as input/output, memory management, string manipulation, and the like. Instead, these facilities are defined in a standard library, which is automatically available in every C program. See The GNU C Library in The GNU C Library Reference Manual.

This manual incorporates the former GNU C Preprocessor Manual, which was among the earliest GNU Manuals. It also uses some text from the earlier GNU C Manual that was written by Trevis Rothwell and James Youngman.

GNU C has many obscure features, each one either for historical compatibility or meant for very special situations. We have left them to a companion manual, the GNU C Obscurities Manual, which will be published digitally later.

• The First Example  Getting started with basic C code.
• Complete Program  A whole example program that can be compiled and run.
• Storage  Basic layout of storage; bytes.
• Beyond Integers  Exploring different numeric types.
• Lexical Syntax  The various lexical components of C programs.
• Arithmetic  Numeric computations.
• Assignment Expressions  Storing values in variables.
• Execution Control Expressions  Expressions combining values in various ways.
• Binary Operator Grammar  An overview of operator precedence.
• Order of Execution  The order of program execution.
• Primitive Types  More details about primitive data types.
• Constants  Explicit constant values: details and examples.
• Type Size  The memory space occupied by a type.
• Pointers  Creating and manipulating memory pointers.
• Structures  Compound data types built by grouping other types.
• Arrays  Creating and manipulating arrays.
• Enumeration Types  Sets of integers with named values.
• Defining Typedef Names  Using typedef to define type names.
• Statements  Controling program flow.
• Variables  Details about declaring, initializing, and using variables.
• Type Qualifiers  Mark variables for certain intended uses.
• Functions  Declaring, defining, and calling functions.
• Compatible Types  How to tell if two types are compatible with each other.
• Type Conversions  Converting between types.
• Scope  Different categories of identifier scope.
• Preprocessing  Using the GNU C preprocessor.
• Integers in Depth  How integer numbers are represented.
• Floating Point in Depth  How floating-point numbers are represented.
• Compilation  How to compile multi-file programs.
• Directing Compilation  Operations that affect compilation but don’t change the program. 

Appendices
• Type Alignment  Where in memory a type can validly start.
• Aliasing  Accessing the same data in two types.
• Digraphs  Two-character aliases for some characters.
• Attributes  Specifying additional information in a declaration.
• Signals  Fatal errors triggered in various scenarios.
• GNU Free Documentation License  The license for this manual.
• Symbol Index  Keyword and symbol index.
• Concept Index  Detailed topical index. 


— The Detailed Node Listing —
• Recursive Fibonacci  Writing a simple function recursively.
• Stack  Each function call uses space in the stack.
• Iterative Fibonacci  Writing the same function iteratively.
• Complete Example  Turn the simple function into a full program.
• Complete Explanation  Explanation of each part of the example.
• Complete Line-by-Line  Explaining each line of the example.
• Compile Example  Using GCC to compile the example.
• Float Example  A function that uses floating-point numbers.
• Array Example  A function that works with arrays.
• Array Example Call  How to call that function.
• Array Example Variations  Different ways to write the call example. 

Lexical Syntax
• English  Write programs in English!
• Characters  The characters allowed in C programs.
• Whitespace  The particulars of whitespace characters.
• Comments  How to include comments in C code.
• Identifiers  How to form identifiers (names).
• Operators/Punctuation  Characters used as operators or punctuation.
• Line Continuation  Splitting one line into multiple lines.
• Digraphs  Two-character substitutes for some characters. 

Arithmetic
• Basic Arithmetic  Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• Integer Arithmetic  How C performs arithmetic with integer values.
• Integer Overflow  When an integer value exceeds the range of its type.
• Mixed Mode  Calculating with both integer values and floating-point values.
• Division and Remainder  How integer division works.
• Numeric Comparisons  Comparing numeric values for equality or order.
• Shift Operations  Shift integer bits left or right.
• Bitwise Operations  Bitwise conjunction, disjunction, negation. 

Assignment Expressions
• Simple Assignment  The basics of storing a value.
• Lvalues  Expressions into which a value can be stored.
• Modifying Assignment  Shorthand for changing an lvalue’s contents.
• Increment/Decrement  Shorthand for incrementing and decrementing an lvalue’s contents.
• Postincrement/Postdecrement  Accessing then incrementing or decrementing.
• Assignment in Subexpressions  How to avoid ambiguity.
• Write Assignments Separately  Write assignments as separate statements. 

Execution Control Expressions
• Logical Operators  Logical conjunction, disjunction, negation.
• Logicals and Comparison  Logical operators with comparison operators.
• Logicals and Assignments  Assignments with logical operators.
• Conditional Expression  An if/else construct inside expressions.
• Comma Operator  Build a sequence of subexpressions. 

Order of Execution
• Reordering of Operands  Operations in C are not necessarily computed in the order they are written.
• Associativity and Ordering  Some associative operations are performed in a particular order; others are not.
• Sequence Points  Some guarantees about the order of operations.
• Postincrement and Ordering  Ambiguous excution order with postincrement.
• Ordering of Operands  Evaluation order of operands and function arguments.
• Optimization and Ordering  Compiler optimizations can reorder operations only if it has no impact on program results. 

Primitive Data Types
• Integer Types  Description of integer types.
• Floating-Point Data Types  Description of floating-point types.
• Complex Data Types  Description of complex number types.
• The Void Type  A type indicating no value at all.
• Other Data Types  A brief summary of other types. 

Constants
• Integer Constants  Literal integer values.
• Integer Const Type  Types of literal integer values.
• Floating Constants  Literal floating-point values.
• Imaginary Constants  Literal imaginary number values.
• Invalid Numbers  Avoiding preprocessing number misconceptions.
• Character Constants  Literal character values.
• Unicode Character Codes  Unicode characters represented in either UTF-16 or UTF-32.
• Wide Character Constants  Literal characters values larger than 8 bits.
• String Constants  Literal string values.
• UTF-8 String Constants  Literal UTF-8 string values.
• Wide String Constants  Literal string values made up of 16- or 32-bit characters. 

Pointers
• Address of Data  Using the “address-of” operator.
• Pointer Types  For each type, there is a pointer type.
• Pointer Declarations  Declaring variables with pointer types.
• Pointer Type Designators  Designators for pointer types.
• Pointer Dereference  Accessing what a pointer points at.
• Null Pointers  Pointers which do not point to any object.
• Invalid Dereference  Dereferencing null or invalid pointers.
• Void Pointers  Totally generic pointers, can cast to any.
• Pointer Comparison  Comparing memory address values.
• Pointer Arithmetic  Computing memory address values.
• Pointers and Arrays  Using pointer syntax instead of array syntax.
• Pointer Arithmetic Low Level  More about computing memory address values.
• Pointer Increment/Decrement  Incrementing and decrementing pointers.
• Pointer Arithmetic Drawbacks  A common pointer bug to watch out for.
• Pointer-Integer Conversion  Converting pointer types to integer types.
• Printing Pointers  Using printf for a pointer’s value. 

Structures
• Referencing Fields  Accessing field values in a structure object.
• Dynamic Memory Allocation  Allocating space for objects while the program is running.
• Field Offset  Memory layout of fields within a structure.
• Structure Layout  Planning the memory layout of fields.
• Packed Structures  Packing structure fields as close as possible.
• Bit Fields  Dividing integer fields into fields with fewer bits.
• Bit Field Packing  How bit fields pack together in integers.
• const Fields  Making structure fields immutable.
• Zero Length  Zero-length array as a variable-length object.
• Flexible Array Fields  Another approach to variable-length objects.
• Overlaying Structures  Casting one structure type over an object of another structure type.
• Structure Assignment  Assigning values to structure objects.
• Unions  Viewing the same object in different types.
• Packing With Unions  Using a union type to pack various types into the same memory space.
• Cast to Union  Casting a value one of the union’s alternative types to the type of the union itself.
• Structure Constructors  Building new structure objects.
• Unnamed Types as Fields  Fields’ types do not always need names.
• Incomplete Types  Types which have not been fully defined.
• Intertwined Incomplete Types  Defining mutually-recursive structue types.
• Type Tags  Scope of structure and union type tags. 

Arrays
• Accessing Array Elements  How to access individual elements of an array.
• Declaring an Array  How to name and reserve space for a new array.
• Strings  A string in C is a special case of array.
• Incomplete Array Types  Naming, but not allocating, a new array.
• Limitations of C Arrays  Arrays are not first-class objects.
• Multidimensional Arrays  Arrays of arrays.
• Constructing Array Values  Assigning values to an entire array at once.
• Arrays of Variable Length  Declaring arrays of non-constant size. 

Statements
• Expression Statement  Evaluate an expression, as a statement, usually done for a side effect.
• if Statement  Basic conditional execution.
• if-else Statement  Multiple branches for conditional execution.
• Blocks  Grouping multiple statements together.
• return Statement  Return a value from a function.
• Loop Statements  Repeatedly executing a statement or block.
• switch Statement  Multi-way conditional choices.
• switch Example  A plausible example of using switch.
• Duffs Device  A special way to use switch.
• Case Ranges  Ranges of values for switch cases.
• Null Statement  A statement that does nothing.
• goto Statement  Jump to another point in the source code, identified by a label.
• Local Labels  Labels with limited scope.
• Labels as Values  Getting the address of a label.
• Statement Exprs  A series of statements used as an expression. 

Variables
• Variable Declarations  Name a variable and and reserve space for it.
• Initializers  Assigning inital values to variables.
• Designated Inits  Assigning initial values to array elements at particular array indices.
• Auto Type  Obtaining the type of a variable.
• Local Variables  Variables declared in function definitions.
• File-Scope Variables  Variables declared outside of function definitions.
• Static Local Variables  Variables declared within functions, but with permanent storage allocation.
• Extern Declarations  Declaring a variable which is allocated somewhere else.
• Allocating File-Scope  When is space allocated for file-scope variables?
• auto and register  Historically used storage directions.
• Omitting Types  The bad practice of declaring variables with implicit type. 

Type Qualifiers
• const  Variables whose values don’t change.
• volatile  Variables whose values may be accessed or changed outside of the control of this program.
• restrict Pointers  Restricted pointers for code optimization.
• restrict Pointer Example  Example of how that works. 

Functions
• Function Definitions  Writing the body of a function.
• Function Declarations  Declaring the interface of a function.
• Function Calls  Using functions.
• Function Call Semantics  Call-by-value argument passing.
• Function Pointers  Using references to functions.
• The main Function  Where execution of a GNU C program begins. 

Type Conversions
• Explicit Type Conversion  Casting a value from one type to another.
• Assignment Type Conversions  Automatic conversion by assignment operation.
• Argument Promotions  Automatic conversion of function parameters.
• Operand Promotions  Automatic conversion of arithmetic operands.
• Common Type  When operand types differ, which one is used? 

Scope
• Scope  Different categories of identifier scope. 

Preprocessing
• Preproc Overview  Introduction to the C preprocessor.
• Directives  The form of preprocessor directives.
• Preprocessing Tokens  The lexical elements of preprocessing.
• Header Files  Including one source file in another.
• Macros  Macro expansion by the preprocessor.
• Conditionals  Controling whether to compile some lines or ignore them.
• Diagnostics  Reporting warnings and errors.
• Line Control  Reporting source line numbers.
• Null Directive  A preprocessing no-op. 

Integers in Depth
• Integer Representations  How integer values appear in memory.
• Maximum and Minimum Values  Value ranges of integer types. 

Floating Point in Depth
• Floating Representations  How floating-point values appear in memory.
• Floating Type Specs  Precise details of memory representations.
• Special Float Values  Infinity, Not a Number, and Subnormal Numbers.
• Invalid Optimizations  Don’t mess up non-numbers and signed zeros.
• Exception Flags  Handling certain conditions in floating point.
• Exact Floating-Point  Not all floating calculations lose precision.
• Rounding  When a floating result can’t be represented exactly in the floating-point type in use.
• Rounding Issues  Avoid magnifying rounding errors.
• Significance Loss  Subtracting numbers that are almost equal.
• Fused Multiply-Add  Taking advantage of a special floating-point instruction for faster execution.
• Error Recovery  Determining rounding errors.
• Exact Floating Constants  Precisely specified floating-point numbers.
• Handling Infinity  When floating calculation is out of range.
• Handling NaN  What floating calculation is undefined.
• Signed Zeros  Positive zero vs. negative zero.
• Scaling by the Base  A useful exact floating-point operation.
• Rounding Control  Specifying some rounding behaviors.
• Machine Epsilon  The smallest number you can add to 1.0 and get a sum which is larger than 1.0.
• Complex Arithmetic  Details of arithmetic with complex numbers.
• Round-Trip Base Conversion  What happens between base-2 and base-10.
• Further Reading  References for floating-point numbers. 

Directing Compilation
• Pragmas  Controling compilation of some constructs.
• Static Assertions  Compile-time tests for conditions.

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